• 1894 Interim balance: Ten years of German rule only on paper •

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At the ‘Berlin Conference’ (‘Congo Conference’) of 1884/1885, the German Empire secured its claim to the territory of ‘German South West Africa’. Nevertheless, for the first ten years, the German rule existed only on paper (more on this below). Why?

The Chancellor of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck (1815 – 1898, in office 1871 – 1890; see unverified Wikipedia article), long resisted Germany acquiring colonies. He formulated his main reason as early as 1868. This was three years before the founding of the German Empire and his assumption of office in 1871:

“The costs incurred by the establishment, support, and especially the maintenance of colonies, as the experiences of England’s and France’s colonial policies prove, very often exceed the benefits that the mother country derives from them, quite apart from the fact that it is difficult to justify burdening the entire nation with considerable taxes for the benefit of individual branches of trade and industry.” (Translation by the editor)

 

Original German text:
“[D]ie Kosten, welche die Gründung, Unterstützung und namentlich die Behauptung der Colonien veranlaßt, übersteigen, wie die Erfahrungen der Colonialpolitik Englands und Frankreichs beweisen, sehr oft den Nutzen, den das Mutterland daraus zieht, ganz abgesehen davon, daß es schwer zu rechtfertigen ist, die ganze Nation zum Vortheile einzelner Handels- und Gewerbszweige, zu erheblichen Steuerlasten heranzuziehen.” (Riehl 1993, p. 22)

Bismarck also believed that Germany, as a rising power, had to focus on Europe. “Your map of Africa is very nice, but my map of Africa lies in Europe” (quoted from Riehl 1993, p. 751), Bismarck told the African explorer Eugen Wolf as late as 1888. With this, he referred to Germany’s position between its ‘arch enemy’ France and the great power Russia.

In 1881, Bismarck declared in the Reichstag:

“As long as I am Chancellor, we will not pursue a colonial policy. We have a fleet that cannot sail, and we must not have any vulnerable points in distant continents that would fall into the hands of the French as soon as it starts [war breaks out; ed.].” (Translation by the editor)

 

Original German text:
“So lange ich Reichskanzler bin, treiben wir keine Kolonialpolitik. Wir haben eine Flotte, die nicht fahren kann und wir dürfen keine verwundbaren Punkte in fernen Erdteilen haben, die den Franzosen als Beute zufallen, sobald es losgeht.” (quoted from Baumgart 1992, p. 142)

1884 – U-turn in Bismarck in colonial policy?

In 1884 and 1885, Bismarck, “following the trade”, nevertheless placed territories under the protection of the German Empire. This included the areas in the west of Great Namaqualand (southwest of present-day Namibia) that the Bremen merchant Lüderitz acquired.

Bismarck also invited colonial powers to a conference in Berlin (‘Congo Conference’). From November 1884 to February 1885 delegates negotiated territorial claims in Africa (‘Scramble for Africa’).

Why this change of course? Many historians believe Bismarck had to yield to pressure from influential circles in business and society. Others interpret his colonial policy as part of an anti-British course, opposing English territorial claims in Africa.

The explanation given is that Bismarck wanted to prevent a feared rapprochement between the German Empire and England. By 1884, it was foreseeable that the throne would pass from Emperor Wilhelm I (87 years old) to his son, Friedrich Wilhelm. Friedrich III (1831–1888; in office March 9 – June 15, 1888; see unverified Wikipedia article) was considered pro-British and liberal.

However, in the event of a conflict with the ‘arch enemy’ France, Bismarck did not see England as a reliable ally. Instead, he favored good relations with Russia, partly to avoid a two-front war. He was also suspicious of England’s more liberal parliamentary monarchy.

Bismarck wanted ‘colonies for free’

It quickly became clear that Bismarck did not completely reverse his stance on the colonial question in 1884/85. The development of the protectorates was to be financed by colonial companies. The German Empire sent only one imperial commissioner and two administrative officials to German South West Africa (GSWA).

However, this approach proved to be a failure: For years, the protectorates languished. Hardly any investment was made in their development, likely primarily due to security concerns.

In 1888, the ‘Year of the Three Emperors’, Emperor Wilhelm I died. Just a few months later, his son and successor, Friedrich III, followed him, terminally ill with cancer. Thus, Friedrich Wilhelm’s son, Wilhelm, was crowned emperor at the young age of 29.

Emperor Wilhelm II (1859–1941; in office from 1888 to 1918; see unverified article on Wikipedia) dreamed of a great power Germany. He wanted to equalise with the British colonial power and massively expand and modernise the German fleet.

Bismarck, on the other hand, would have preferred to rid himself of the German colonies in Africa. In 1889, he offered them to Italy for purchase, but the Italian government refused. Meanwhile, he harboured plans to exchange the ‘sandbox’ of German South West Africa for Heligoland, then under British rule. The small North Sea island off the German coast was strategically important.

Now Bismarck was at odds with Emperor Wilhelm II, not only over the colonial question. Domestically, tensions also arose, for example, regarding his hardline stance against the socialists. Above all, the 74-year-old ‘Iron Chancellor’ stood in the way of the young emperor’s desired ‘personal way of rule’.

In March 1890, the relationship came to an open break. Wilhelm II accepted his chancellor’s resignation. A political cartoon that circulated around the world commented: “Dropping the pilot.”

1890 – Bismarck departs, colonies remain

Bismarck’s successor was Leo von Caprivi (1831–1899, in office from 1890 to 1894; see unverified Wikipedia article). The ‘Heligoland – Zanzibar Treaty’ (see unverified Wikipedia article) with the United Kingdom, immortalised his name in southern Africa. Although Caprivi signed the document, it had actually been drafted by Bismarck.

Under this treaty, Germany ceded its claims to Zanzibar to Britain. In return, it received Heligoland and a strip of land stretching from the north-east of GSWA to the Zambezi. It was soon dubbed the ‘Caprivi Strip’.

Like Bismarck, Caprivi was no colonial enthusiast. However, the year 1890 marked a turning point in German colonial policy. Giving up the colonies was no longer an option for the rising German Empire, if only for reasons of prestige.

The ‘General Act of the Conference of Berlin’ of 1885 created a sense of urgency. The territorial claims granted therein would lapse if not exercised. At the same time, the colonial lobby increased its pressure. The economy wanted to secure raw materials, markets, transport deals, and investment opportunities.

GSWA – For ten years a ‘colony for free’

The highest-ranking German representative in GSWA was initially Gustav Nachtigal (1834 – 1885; see unverified Wikipedia article). As Imperial Commissioner for West Africa, he certified Adolf Lüderitz’s land acquisitions in GSWA.

After Nachtigal’s sudden death from Malaria in April 1885, the German Empire appointed Heinrich Goering (1838 – 1913; see unverified Wikipedia article) as Imperial Commissioner for GSWA. Goering (father of Hermann, the later Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe in the Third Reich) arrived in GSWA in June 1885.

He was tasked with establishing German rule through protection treaties with leaders of the Herero and Oorlam/Nama groups. These treaties included benefits for the individual rulers, such as assistance in the event of attacks by hostile groups and financial aid.

Further aspects were taxation and jurisdiction in conflicts between members of their group and Germans. These regulations often worked to their disadvantage, as would later become apparent. The rulers relinquished their sovereignty and the right to conclude treaties with other European nations. They also guaranteed protection to Germans within their territory.

However, without soldiers and sufficient funds, Goering was not in the position to provide the promised protection from enemy attacks. In 1888, after raids by Oorlam Kaptein Hendrik Witbooi (see unverified Wikipedia article), Herero omuhona Kamaharero (see unverified Wikipedia article) angrily denounced the protection treaty as an empty promise and terminated it. Goering and his two officials fled to the British exclave of Walvis Bay.

DKGSWA dispatched ‘Schutztruppe’ (Protection Force)

This also put German ventures in German South West Africa at risk. In 1885, when the merchant Adolf Lüderitz ran out of funds, the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft für Deutsch Südwestafrika (DKGSWA, German Colonial Society for German South West Africa) took over his land and mining rights. To secure its claims and attract investors, it dispatched its first ‘protection force’ in 1889.

In June, 21 mercenaries landed in the British port of Walvis Bay. They were under the command of Captain Curt von François (see unverified Wikipedia article), a surveying and research officer with extensive overseas experience.

Right from the start, he had fortifications built at strategically important points. They were designed to provide a strong defense against even a superior number of attackers. The ‘Wilhelmsfeste’ near Tsaobis, meant to secure and control the ‘Baiweg’, the main trade route between the interior and the coast, was the first one.

After an extensive reconnaissance tour through the east and north of the ‘protectorate’, François returned to Otjimbingwe in 1890. As the DKGSWA sent a reinforcement, his force now consisted of 50 men. Goering was recalled after a brief return. François then also assumed the post of Imperial Commissioner.

In May 1890, he renewed the protection treaty with Kamaharero. At the same time, he received permission from Kamaharero to build a fortress near Windhoek (Winterhoek). Kamaharero apparently hoped this would provide protection against the Witbooi-Oorlam. In 1891, François moved the administrative headquarters and the headquarters of the protection force there.

Fierce resistance from Hendrik Witbooi

François repeatedly tried to persuade Hendrik Witbooi, now regarded as the leading Oorlam Nama Kaptein, to sign a protection treaty. However, Witbooi stubbornly refused.

At the end of 1892, Witbooi instead made peace with Samuel Maharero (see unverified Wikipedia article), who had succeeded his father. Kamaharero had died in 1890. Witbooi also warned Maharero that the protection treaty with the Germans would prove detrimental to him. Therefore, the Germans had to fear a united front from Witbooi and Maharero.

In mid-March 1893, more than 200 German soldiers landed in Swakopmund. On 12 April 1893, François attacked Witbooi’s fortified settlement Hornkranz (Hoornkrans), west of Rehoboth, with a force of 150 men. His goal was to force Witbooi to sign a treaty and to impress other leaders of the Oorlam/Naman and OvaHerero.

The attack was launched without a declaration of war. It claimed the lives of approximately 80 Witbooi-Oorlam. Hendrik Witbooi spoke of 88 fatalities. Among the victims were dozens of women and children.

However, Hendrik Witbooi escaped with the majority of his fighters. He followed the unsuspecting protection force and drove off dozens of their horses at a post south of Windhoek.

Undeterred, he continued his raids. In November, he destroyed the DKGSWA sheep-breeding station near Kubub, deep in the southwest of the country. It had been built without his permission, he stated.

Consequently, one could not speak of German rule in the DSWA. How could one, anyway? The DKGSWA’s ‘protection force’ now consisted of approximately 250 soldiers, some of whom were poorly mounted.

In contrast, the entire ‘protectorate’ including the Caprivi Strip covered an area of approximately 824,000 km². This made it one and a half times the size of the German Reich (541,000 km²). The number of ‘natives’ at that time was conservatively estimated at 70,000 OvaHerero, 30,000 Daman and San, 15,000 Oorlam/Naman, and 3,000 Baster (Leutwein 1906, p. 11).

German Empire taking over and reinforcing the ‘Schutztruppe’

Therefore, one can only speak of the establishment of actual German rule from 1894 onwards.

1 January: Major Theodor Leutwein (see unverified Wikipedia article), sent by the German Empire, arrived in German South-West Africa.
15 March: Leutwein replaced François as Governor (Landeshauptmann).
3 May: By cabinet order, Emperor Wilhelm II granted the DKGSWA’s Schutztruppe the official title ‘Kaiserliche Schutztruppe für Deutsch-Südwestafrika’ (Imperial Protection Force for German South-West Africa).
18 July: The reinforcements of 250 soldiers requested from Germany arrived in Swakopmund.
27 August: Leutwein took action against Hendrik Witbooi, who had retreated to the Naukluft Mountains.
15 September: Following negotiations with Leutwein, Witbooi signed a protection treaty. He abode by it until October 1904.

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Sources:

• Baumgart 1992
• DHPS History Department 2020
• Dierks 2003
• Henrichsen 2011
• Leutwein 1906
• Riehl 1993
• Wallace 2011
• Zimmerer 2015

The German Empire and its colonies in Africa. Graph: Ruskie Business, Wikipedia / Chancellor of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck (Portrait by Franz von Lenbach in the 1880s). Photo: GettyImages, Commons/Wikimedia